International Business Ethics Essay

A business colleague once recalled a situation in which a former employer had to decide whether gift-giving or bribery was ethically acceptable. In an international business situation, bribery is often a way of cutting through bureaucratic red tape and expediting deals. American companies consider bribery unethical because the American way considers bribery an unfair advantage and does not condone the practice. On an international level, bribery is often an accepted part of local culture and not seen as unethical, but as a way to achieve a quick win-win deal for all parties involved. American business has long been accused of cultural imperialism, the practice of promoting the culture of one nation into another nation by force (wikipedia, 2007). American businesses feel that the American way of doing business is the only way all international businesses should operate, regardless of a locally accepted practices or culture. American companies that are not willing to accept that bribery is an ethical and integral part of performing business on international soil are severely short selling business opportunities. While bribery has resulted in unethical practices on American soil, the same is not true in many international settings. Extra payment for services is seen as good business and often the only way to get any business completed in a timely fashion. While some companies may use bribery on international soil to a disadvantage, most local business cultures simply will not do business without the bribery payments. Globalization has increased the pressure on international business members to regulate many business practices such as bribery. American businesses need to be cognizant of international cultures and take into consideration that accepted practices in a global setting may not be the same as on American soil. Global regulation should strive to be free of American cultural imperialism to be accepted and respected on an international level. Reference http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_imperialism

A computer virus Essay

A computer virus is much the same as a human virus, but whereas flu affects the human body, the wonderfully named viruses Antics, stoned, Notepad A, michealangelo all affect the computer in various ways human can carry a virus without even knowing they have it (measles has an incubation period of a couple of weeks), a piece of computer equipment such as a floppy dice may similarly be carrying a virus without knowing. Unfortunately, the virus carrier may maliciously pass the virus on, knowing that there is an infection. A virus is a computer program that is intended to copy itself to other programs and causes disruption to the infected equipment. There are different types of virus. The Trojan horse is a virus which hides inside another program, a time bomb is one which is activated on a certain date, a logic bamboo is one activated by a certain condition Su as file being accessed 10 times, there are literally thousands of viruses around, some have been written maliciously. Others were designed to be ‘ nice’, such as displaying the message Happy Christmas, but then destroyed information as a side effect. Doctors in the computer world are other programs, known as anti-virus software, or virus killing software. Anti-virus software can search disks oft viruses, then disinfect the disk if a virus us found. Gatekeepers exist which will scan any newly accessed information such as loading a file from floppy, or downloading e-mails from your internet Service Provider. Software is regularly updated to take account of the new viruses which appear daily. Most people update monthly. Anti-virus software is of fundamental importance in the modern ICT world. The only time you are safe is if you have a stand-alien computer not connected to any network, in which you use no disks, and only use legal software. (Even then I ‘m afraid you are not entirely safe, as viruses have sometimes affected legal software, such as the Notepad A virus which is a macro virus which comes with MS Word 6. 0) Viruses infect computers, we will never get rid of them, and must be aware of their existence, and use our computer equipment sensibly, including wrapping up warm when winter comes!

Bringing Ethics Into Business

Outline the arguments for and against bringing ethics and corporate social responsibility into business The question of whether or not to bring ethics and corporate social responsibility into business is an ongoing one. â€Å"Business ethics is the study of proper business policies and practices regarding potentially controversial issues such as bribery, discrimination and corporate social responsibility† (www. investopedia. com/terms/b/business-ethics. asp). The objective of this essay is to discuss the arguments for and against bringing ethics and corporate social responsibility into business. There are three arguments against bringing ethics into business. The first argument is that the availability of free markets and the pursuit of profit can be guaranteed benefit to all members of the community (Velasquez, 1998). This means that regardless of ethics, companies can contribute to the production requirements of the public. For example, there are some companies in Saudi which contribute to the provision of some modern medical equipment to the general hospitals to improve the health care. There is a counter-argument to this. Most companies have as their target only profit and the reduction of costs without paying attention to the interests of society. For instance, some factories flow chemical waste in rivers and lakes, therefore affecting fish, which is considered an important food source for humans. The second argument is the loyal agent’s argument (Velasquez, 1998). In some cases in business people have the right to reject something which is conflict with their ethics. For example, a Muslim woman was working in a clothing store and the boss asked her to take off her headscarf and adorn herself to attract customers, but the woman told him that her religion did not allow her to do that and the manager tried forcing her. Then she left her job and resorted to the law and won the case. In terms of the counter-argument, behaviour in business is covered by law of agency which states that in business, ethics have to be considered. The third argument is related to the law. Velasquez (1998) says that the law is all that is required in order to be ethical. This means that it should be enough for people to obey the law but the law and ethics are not the same for everyone. When it comes to the counter-argument there are aspects in ethics which is in some countries are legal but other countries would consider immoral. The laws of Saudi Arabia for example, require that business discriminate against women in ways people in other countries would not agree are ethical. However, there are four arguments in favour of ethics in business. The first argument is that all business should be based on morality which is achieved by humans (Corballis, 2011). This means that each person has factors that help him to do the right. The second argument argues that business cannot exist without ethics standards (Corballis, 2011). This means that standards of morality should be available for the continuation of work. There is a counter argument to this. There is a counter argument to this because business could collapse if stakeholders behaved unethically. The third argument is that ethics produce profit. According to Corballis (2011), there is evidence that certain companies have combined the ethical and the economic together. They make a profit and they are apparently ethical such as Hewlett- Packard, Levi Strauss and Starbucks. In terms of the counter-argument, this is a cynical view because a company which has ethics should not necessarily say that. The last argument is reward and punishment in business. Companies that have ethics they will be rewarded in turn will boycott companies that do not behave morally (Corballis, 2011). There is evidence of this: people still believe The Body Shop is totally ethical because the owner of this factory who is a woman was based in the manufacture of its products on natural products. However, when the company grew and it became big, it was coveted by one of the major companies which bought the company from the owner. Therefore, they did not change the principal name and people believe it still has the same ethics. When it comes to the counter-argument, companies pay a huge amount of money to specialists for publicity and advertising to hide their unethical dealings, such as HSBC. In conclusion, this essay has discussed above the arguments for and against bringing ethics and corporate social responsibility into business. From the above arguments, it can be seen that the arguments which support the importance of a morality in business are the most convincing because business without ethics will collapse. References:- Corballis, T. , (2011), Argument for and against business ethics and corporate social responsibility, lecture given at Middlesex University. Velasquez, M. G. , (1998), Arguments for and against Business Ethics, Business Ethics, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Investopedia. com/terms/b/business-ethics. asp, Retrieved August 7, 2011 from http://www. investopedia. com/terms/b/business-ethics. asp.

The Impacts of the Reform Party of Canada in the Federal Canada Essay

The Impacts of the Reform Party of Canada in the Federal Canada - Essay Example Such constituent political organs have great influence in the way things are done in the political setup of any federal state. It is important to highlight that federalism always thrive where democracy forms the core of the political structure and sovereignty (Bakvis and Grace, 28). The democratic rules form the core of the powers used by the national and provincial governments, thus creating a federation. This form of government has been majorly experienced in several nations worldwide. Some of the counties that have been governed through federalism include Australia, Brazil and Canada. In addition, the other countries in which federalism thrives include Colombia and India. The federalism in Canada majorly concerns the historical achievements that the federal Canada attained with regards to its system of government (Bakvis and Grace, 21). Canada is one of the federations that thrives on two systems of government. These include the national government, which is the federal government , as well as the provincial government. The provincial governments in Canada execute on matters pertaining to provincial administrations as detailed in the constitution. In Canada, there are clear-cut differences between the parliamentary federal systems and the provincial assemblies. These differences come in terms of areas of legislative authority. Those two federal systems of governments are absolutely independent of each other when it comes to execution of legislative duties. However, even though independence of the two legislative arms is evident, there are some of the sectors which are shared by these independent legal systems. Some of these sectors include agriculture and immigration sectors in Canada. However, it is quite prudent to note that majority of the sectors are encompassed within the federal jurisdiction (Bakvis and Grace, 37). For instance, the sector of foreign affairs and telecommunications are entirely within the federal jurisdiction. However, sectors like educa tion and health care are squarely dealt with within the provincial jurisdiction in Canada. The Reform Party of Canada is one of the federal political parties that thrived in Canada for a number of years. The party was established in the year 1987 due to several protests that formed part of the political on-goings in Canada in the late nineteenth century. The Reform Party of Canada arose under the strong influence of the people who were led by the populous leader named Preston Manning. Preston Manning led the party until March 25, the year 2000 when the party dissolved (Bakvis and Grace, 47). The major political motivations that were championed by the party include the need for democratic reforms. In addition, the movement was strongly opposed to the Progressive Conservative government that was headed by Brian Mulroney. This made the movement to gain a massive political backing by the people in the western parts of Canada. This made the party to start seeking for backing even from th e Eastern parts of Canada for the benefit of moving the nation forward. The party also gained political backing following the quest for equality that they championed following the discrimination of the people of Western Canada in favor of those from the eastern parts. There are several impacts that the Reform Party of Canada had on the Canadian federalism. It is of critical importance to acknowledge the role played by peace and equality amongst the citizens. It is in order to highlight that for a country to experience a balance in development, there should be a sense of equality amongst the people. As such, there should be no part of that country whose people are discriminated upon. Discrimination of individuals as

America in Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita Research Paper

America in Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita - Research Paper Example So much of the consumer society must have been a shock to him, after the deprivations of wartime in Europe, and yet he identified very strongly with many features of his new home. Sweeney quotes Nabokov saying to a journalist in 1966 â€Å"I am as American as April in Arizona† (1994, p. 325) and links this curious alliterative statement with the period when Nabokov and his family lived in Arizona in the Spring of 1953: â€Å"On sunny afternoons that April (and all day long during one rainy week) Nabokov worked at telling one story in particular: Lolita, his most acute observation of America’s beauties and vulgarities, the most cunning, incisive and poetic American novel of this century. (Sweeney, 1994, p. 328). Lolita is set in working class provincial America, and its characters speak the idiom of that milieu. The object of his desire is a world weary twelve year old and Humbert indulges her love of vulgar and transient aspects of American culture: â€Å"Mentally, I found her a disgustingly conventional little girl. Sweet hot jazz, square dancing, gooey fudge sundaes, musicals, movie magazines and so forth.† (Nabokov and Appel, 1991, p. 148)The character of Humbert is portrayed as an immigrant of French origins, and in this character Nabokov plays out part of himself, quoting the narrative style of the realist novelist Flaubert in French with the phrase â€Å"Nous connà »mes† and contrasting this learned reference with the tacky motels that they visit (Nabokov and Appel, 1991, pp. 145-146). He sees the tackiness that is on offer as something faintly ridiculous, but uses it as a means to ingratiate himself with Lolita: â€Å"we had to buy its Indian curios, dolls, copper je welry, cactus candy. The words ‘novelties’ and ‘souvenirs’ simply entranced her by their trochaic lilt† (Nabokov and Appel, p. 148). Humbert merges his own intellectual delight in the language with Lolita’s love of trivia. Through her he learns to both love and hate

Industries Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Industries - Assignment Example There are several of substitutes to air travel, particularly over short distances. These include taking other forms of transport. Similarly, there is strong rivalry among different airlines within the industry. For instance, in the pre-deregulation era when prices charged was mandated by worldwide aviation board, airlines competed majorly on aspects such as service, in-flight movies, and meals, etc. However in the post-de-regulation era, this competition has taken on the form the form of pricing where individual airline company are counter checking daily prices they offer ( Schmid, 2011). These facts have attributed to more customer power in the industry. Most notably, the airline industry requires huge capital investment. Basing on these facts, entry and existing become very costly. When you enter, there are a lot of regulations, and the initial capital is also very high. On the other hand, when airlines have to exit the sector, they require writing down and absorb several losses. A ll these features make the airline industry cede authority to the consumers and thus, the power of buyers is moderate to high. Despite all, there is power of the supplier as there are only two major manufacturers of large commercial aircraft. In the case of a major accident, the structures of within the industry always tend to change. The airline industry is likely to undergo a technological revolution that will make air travel even safer. Normally, key aspects of the change may witness heavy investments from various industry players (Cento, 2009). Leadership within the industry also changes to help reform the industry. The assumption always is that leadership had failed prior to the accident and as such, change in leadership may help bring normalcy. Coupled with technological advancements, undoubtedly this makes air travel a pleasurable experience and a risk-free— both for the crew and

Investment Assignment Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Investment Assignment Report - Essay Example There are a set of rule governing how trades and investors choose the varying available security options in the stock market. Our strategy is exemplified in this paper because of the decision to apply the gainer part. For the momentum strategy, my choice was Voltari Corp. Applying the first trading principle, â€Å"avoid dealing in stocks reporting above or within the 52 week high†, the decision to invest in APC indicates that this trading principle was correctly followed. Purchasing stocks of Voltari Corp. in its 52-week high stood at $3.60. The second trading principle-choose stocks recording a minimum of 1,000,000 shares in the daily trade volumes, in addition to avoiding stocks recording daily volumes of trade below 100,000 shares-the decision to buy Voltari Corp. stocks comply with the second trading principle. Voltari Corp. stocks recorded 3 million shares in its average 3-month trading volume. The third trading principle illustrates the need to avoid mid-and-cap stocks (stocks recording values less than $5 billion). This principle does not conform well to Voltari Corp.; its stock falls in small-cap stock category with $16.91 million in market capitalization value. Finally, the fourt h trading principle indicates that an individual should choose stocks signified by analysts opinions rated closer to or above one (1). This is an indication of better performance in the future compared to opinions that are above or within the range of Five (5). The fourth rules also states that stocks recording negative trends or without significant changes in weekly consensus figures also need to be avoided. The â€Å"snapshot† tool available in Market Watch do not show the average recommendation from the analysts for Voltari Corp. generally, most stocks in the financial market have an average recommendation of ‘buy’. Consequently, the trend is projected to move towards the lower facet of the statistical ranking, with twenty-three

Trifles by Susan Glaspell Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Trifles by Susan Glaspell - Research Paper Example In this paper an effort has been made to elaborate how Mrs. Peters breaks away from traditional gender roles for women of her era to take on her husband’s role as sheriff, but, in this process, seems to abandon being â€Å"married to the law† and is ultimately â€Å"loyal to her sex.† The narrowed down topic, for the purpose of this paper, is ‘crime solving.’ Does Mrs. Peters know about the evidence-based approach to investigations in crimes? Crime investigation and evidence acceptable to the law are alternative beats of the same heart. Her priority seems to narrow down on the possible perpetrator of the crime, and to achieve her purpose she is inclined to sidetrack the legal angle to start with. The asset of the woman is her sixth sense is invariably sharper as compared to men and she is in a position to guess what is swept under the carpet, in this case, by the murderer. Just as a lie repeated a thousand times from a platform takes on the garb of truth, when women are often told that they are inferior to men, their thinking capabilities are no match to that of men, they actually believe it. The line of action taken by the legal luminaries and by Mrs. Peters for investigation of the crime is different and it is in tune with their thinking. The thinking of the former is conditioned by legal requirements and as for Mrs. Peters she just wants to know the truth and she too seeks evidences that the official investigators would dismiss as trifles. Both are systematic in their approach of investigation but the domain of investigation of each one of them and their perspectives vary. The legal luminaries think that the interference of women led by Mrs. Peters in the investigation is unnecessary and not worthwhile. From the point of view of the Sheriff, kitchen is the least important place but for Mrs. Peters it is the most important place. The gender perspective of the author is clearly evident

Comparative Eastern Influences Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Comparative Eastern Influences - Essay Example Both religions employ the concepts of karma, the understanding that a person's happiness is determined by the good and evil he/she has committed in not only one lifetime but many subsequent lifetimes, and nirvana, the exemption from the repetition of living, dying, and reliving (p. 497). In Hinduism, according to Bruder and Moore (2005), "humans, though basically good, are caught up in a cycle of desire and suffering that is the direct result of ignorance and ego. In short, they are miserable. The desires that torment them are many and diverse, including sensual lusts and the desire for existence" (p. 497). Hinduism's beliefs are built upon searching for absolutism, and for a person to obtain a unity with his/her soul and with eternal life (p. 495). In a similar fashion, Buddhism targets ignorance and selfishness as the grounds for suffering. Bruder and Moore (2005) state that a person cannot have these two character flaws as a way to live "because what happens is so much beyond one' s control. For even when life goes as is hoped for, there is no guarantee that it will continue that way, and inevitably anxiety and fear overwhelm temporary satisfaction" (p. 498). The Vedas are Hinduism's doctrine that instructs the ideal way of living. It contains the Upanishads, which contains the mahavakya, or "the four great sayings" (p. 496). Atman is, simply, one person and his soul. Brahman is, as Bruder and Moore (2005) write, the "ultimate reality or principal and the source and sustainer of all things, including people and gods. It is the supreme consciousness, the one, the One-and-only-One" (p. 496). The mahavakya describe how a Hindu can unity his atman and a brahman (which can be done through much meditation): "1) Consciousness is brahman, 2) That art thou, 3) The self is brahman, and 4) I am brahman" (p. 495-6). The Vedas influenced the religion's philosophical schools, created to help its students achieve spiritual emancipation: Yoga, Vedanta, Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, and Mimamsa (p. 495). Buddhism has the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as its dogmas. The Four Noble Truths acknowledge that agony exists, the sources of agony, the actuality that the person can terminate his/her agony, and how to do so, which are illustrated in the eight statements known as the Eightfold Path (p. 498). The directions contained in the Eightfold Path are the Right View, Right Aim, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Living, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Contemplation. These are listed in the order that the person must take in order to succeed. For example, the right aim cannot be established without first having the right view (pp. 500-502). Hindu's origins are unknown; no one knows who discovered it, when, or under what circumstances. However, Hindus accept the dogmas dictated in the Vedas (p. 495). Despite its unknown origins, Bruder and Moore (2005) state, "It is best to view it (Hinduism) as a spiritual attitude that gives rise to a wide range of religious and philosophical beliefs and practices. These range from the worship of village and forest deities, which often take zoomorphic forms, to sophisticated metaphysical theories" (p. 495). With Buddhism, there is a detailed account of its establishment by Prince Siddhartha Gautama, who would later be renowned

Delinquent Youth Subculture - Gang Research Paper - 1

Delinquent Youth Subculture - Gang - Research Paper Example What is the response to youth gangs? The aim of this paper is to research the phenomenon of youth gangs in the American society. This requires providing answers to the questions above, supported by data from both primary and secondary sources. Structurally, I have organized the text into six main sections. The first part or Introduction outlines the aim and focus of the paper. The second section centers on the gangs’ origins and history, as well as explains what a gang is. The third part identifies the types of activities and behavior characteristic of a gang. The fourth section provides some theoretical background to the concept, while the fifth focuses on the societal response to the youth gangs phenomenon. Finally, I conclude the paper with the sixth section that sums up the paper’s findings. Scholarly sources abound with youth gang definitions, one of the earliest being that of Thrasher (1927). Thrasher explained that a gang should be understood as a spontaneously forming group that is not attached to any specific part of society (Thrasher, 1927). A more recent definition of gangs views the latter as groups that consist of individuals who recurrently associate and are subject to identifiable organization in leadership and internal matters. These groups also identify themselves with or claim to have control over a particular territory within a given community, and are known to engage in illegal (often violent) behavior individually or collectively (Miller, 1975). Youth gangs are also believed to be â€Å"any denotable groups of youngsters who a) are generally perceived as a distinct aggregation by others in their neighborhood; b) recognize themselves as a denotable group (almost invariably with a group name); and c) have been involved in a sufficient number of delinquent incidents to call forth a consistent negative response from neighborhood agencies and/or enforcement agencies†

The Red Badge of Courage Analysis Essay Example for Free

The Red Badge of Courage Analysis Essay In the novel, The Red Badge of Courage, a theme shows itself during a battle, in the civil war. It is the battle towards maturity and adulthood. A soldier by the name of Henry Fleming, also known as the youth, shows this theme. However this can be argued, especially about the last scenes in the novel. Henry Fleming is an immature soldier who enlists in the army looking for the Spartan glory he found in stories. â€Å"They might not be distinctly Homeric, but there seemed to be much glory in them. He had read of marches, sieges, conflicts, and he had longed to see it all. † (Pg 6) Henry shows little maturity in his decision to enlist. He looks for a grace amongst death. â€Å"He had grown to regard himself merely as a part of a vast blue demonstration. †(Pg 11) During the beginning of battle he begins to see a broader spectrum in the world. He begins to see that he is not an individual, but a part of a group. Henry begins to find adult hood, he loses some selfishness and begins to look towards others with compassion. He felt the subtle battle brotherhood more potent even than the cause for which he was fighting. † (Pg 56) However, Henry’s immaturity is shown when he deserts a dying soldier and flees from a battle. â€Å"The youth looked at him, could see that he, too, like that other one, was beginning to act dumb and animal-like. † (Pg 44) As Henry leaves the dying tattered solider, he feels remorse, wondering why he was so stupid to abandon his friend. A childish action to say the least. Henry returns to his platoon feeling guilty for his abandonment of both the platoon and the solider. He goes onto be accepted back into the platoon, they are unaware that he abandoned them; he goes on to fight heroically in a battle. After a high-ranking officer makes a derogatory remark about Henry, Henry changes his attitude. He accepts the comment without rebellion and shows respect, which shows his growing maturity. Because of the success of fighting bravely, Henry has the self-esteem to deal with his mistakes as an adult. As a mature solider he can learn from his mistakes. By the end of the novel, Henry has changed and he knows it. He has become a soldier that gained courage, responsibility, and can admit his wrongdoing. He can never make up for deserting the dying soldier, but now entering adulthood he can â€Å"put his sin at a distance. † By gaining new qualities and confronting his cowardice, he is truly mature: â€Å"He felt a quiet manhood, nonassertive but of sturdy and strong blood. He was a man. †

The Removal of the Compulsory Retirement Age Essay Example for Free

The Removal of the Compulsory Retirement Age Essay However, our superannuation system is in a transition phase, and some the details of the changes are contained in the table below: Age regulations and qualifications governing superannuation and social security systems 55| Age to which superannuation entitlements are compulsorily preserved. From age 55, preserved superannuation becomes available upon retirement. For people aged 55 to 60 years, Regulations under the  Superannuation Industry (Supervision) Act 1993  (SIS regulations) define retirement as permanent withdrawal from the workforce. A phased increase in the superannuation preservation age to 60 is to begin in 2015 and will affect people born after 30 June 1960. By 2025, people born after June 1964 will be subject to a preservation age of 60 years. | | People aged 55 years and over can access a range of social security pensions and benefits depending on their circumstances, e. g. Disability Support Pension, Newstart Allowance, Carer Pension and Widow Allowance. From September 1997, superannuation assets of those aged 55 and over were taken into account under the income and assets tests after 9 months on income support (pending legislation). 60| Under SIS Regulations, after age 60, retirement may be taken to have occurred upon cessation of a period of gainful employment even if the person intends to re-enter gainful employment. Current qualifying age for Mature Age Allowance. | 61| Womens current qualifying age for age pension. The age pension age for women is being slowly increased to 65 over the next 17 years (reaching 65 years in July 2013). | 65| Mens qualifying age for age pension. | 70| From 1 July 1997 people were allowed to continue to contribute to a regulated superannuation fund up to age 70, provided they are gainfully employed for at least 10 hours per week over the year. | http://wiki. answers. com/Q/What_is_the_workplace_compulsory_retirement_age_Australia http://www. alrc. gov. au/publications/2-recruitment-and-employment-law/compulsory-retirement Most people retire at 55 years or over. According to the  Australian Bureau of Statistics, the average age Australians intend to retire is 63 for men and 61 for women. Compulsory retirement at 65 was made unlawful in South Australia in 1993. It is against the law to dismiss staff because of their age unless there is an occupational reason to be a certain age. Most staff cant be forced to retire because of age except: * judges and magistrates must retire at 70 * Australian Defence Force personnel must retire at 65. The average retirement age is likely to increase as we have an ageing population. More workers will move into retirement age and fewer will enter the labour market. As a result, there will be a shortage of workers. Governments and many employers are already trying to encourage workers to stay on longer by offering assistance to older staff and options like  phased retirement. You can retain your staff past retirement age by offering  phased retirement or flexible working conditions. http://www. eoc. sa. gov. au/eo-business/employers/staffing/dismissing-retrenching-and-retiring-staff/retiring-staff/when-do-staf The likelihood of being retired increased with age. For those aged 45-49 years, just 5% were retired, compared to 16% of 55-59 year olds, 68% of 65-69 year olds and 87% of those aged 70 years and over. In 2010-11, 63% of men aged 45 years and over were in the labour force, 33% had retired, and 3% were not in the labour force but had not yet retired. In contrast, 50% of women aged 45 years and over were in the labour force, 39% had retired and the remaining 5% were not in the labour force but had not yet retired. The average age at retirement from the labour force for people aged 45 years and over in 2010-11 was 53. years (57. 9 years for men and 49. 6 years for women). Of the 1. 4 million men who had retired from the labour force: 27% had retired aged less than 55 years; 53% had retired aged 55-64 years; and 20% had retired aged 65 years and over. The 1. 8 million women who had retired from the labour force had retired on average at a younger age than men. The ages at which women retirees had retired from the labour force were as foll ows: 57% had retired aged less than 55 years; 35% had retired aged 55-64 years; and % had retired aged 65 years and over. Of the 2. 2 million retired people who had worked in the last 20 years, 94% had held a full-time job at some stage. For nearly three-quarters (72%) of those who held a full-time job, their last job held prior to retirement was full-time. The remainder worked part-time before retiring. http://www. abs. gov. au/ausstats/[emailprotected] nsf/Latestproducts/6238. 0Main%20Features1July%202010%20to%20June%202011? opendocument;amp;tabname=Summary;amp;prodno=6238. 0;amp;issue=July%202010%20to%20June%202011;amp;num=;amp;view= ttp://jobsearch. about. com/b/2013/03/08/too-old-to-get-hired. htm In advanced and developing economies, ageing populations and low birth rates are emphasising the need for retaining and sustaining competent older workers. This paper examines human resource and governmental policy and practice implications from the contradictory accounts directed tow ards those workers aged over 44 years, who are usually classi? ed as ‘older workers’. It focuses on a key and paradoxical impediment in the workforce retention of these workers. Using Australia as a case study, this paper argues that policies and practices to retain and sustain workers aged 45 or more need to de-emphasise the term ‘older workers’ and reconsider how human resource management and government policies, as well as practices by workers themselves, might pursue longer and more productive working lives for employees aged over 45. It seeks to elaborate the paradox of the (under)valuing of older workers’ contributions and provides direction for retaining and supporting the ongoing employability of these workers. It concludes by proposing that government, industry bodies and sector councils that seek to change employer attitudes will likely require a dual process comprising both engagement with older workers and a balanced appraisal of their worth. Alone, subsidies and/or mandation may well serve to entrench age bias without measures to redress that bias through a systematic appraisal of their current and potential contributions. In addition, to support this transformation of bias and sustain their employability, older workers will likely need to exercise greater agency in their work and learning. Quite consistently across international and national surveys, a pattern emerges of employers and managers holding older workers in low esteem which appears quite entrenched. Indeed, managers’ assessments of older workers are consistently negative, seemingly irrespective of appraisals of their actual performance (Rosen and Jerdee 1988). The evidence from studies across Europe and North America commonly report that employers are far more likely to fund the training of the young and well educated, rather than older workers (Brunello 2001; Brunello and Medio 2001; Giraud 2002). Truly, some northern European countries adopt more positive attitudes towards and claim a strong sense of obligation to older workers as exercised through a set of national policies and practices (Bishop 1997; Smith and Billett 2003). Yet, it is noteworthy that elsewhere the ways in which employers distribute and fund developmental opportunities for their employees, is resistant to legislated (Giraud 2002) and mandated measures (Bishop 1997). Instead, the privileging of youth (and perhaps never more so than when they become a scarce commodity within ageing populations) is that which shapes employers’ decisionmaking about the distribution of sponsored workplace-based opportunities for learning. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 1251This suggests that government intervention by pressing or subsidising employers to employ older workers will not be suf? cient, unless the attitude of employers can in some way be transformed. Australian studies of attitudes towards older workers report similar ? ndings to those reported elsewhere. One study concluded that ‘regardless of the perceived more positive qualities of older workers , employers appear to prefer to recruit employees in the younger age groups for most employee categories’ with ‘minimal interest in recruiting anyone over 45 years for any job and no preference for anyone 56 years or older’ (Steinberg, Donald, Najman and Skerman 1996, p. 157). Despite the increasing recognition of the looming labour shortage at that time and following it, such attitudes appear to have been slow to change. Yet, such attitudes are quite potent. Taylor and Walker (1998, p. 44) concluded that ‘workplace perceptions about older workers (and different groups of older workers) may directly in? uence not only their prospects for gaining employment but also their prospects for development and advancement within an organisation’. A 2003 guide by the Business Council of Australia (BCA) identi? ed numerous ‘readily accepted negative stereot ypes of mature-age workers’, including their lacking motivation and enthusiasm, being close-minded, more susceptible to injury and illness, having outdated skills, less capable, unwilling to take on new training or challenges, risk averse and having less potential for development (p. 2). Yet, the issues raised by the BCA (2003) pose dif? culties in generalising about employer attitudes and practices. In a telephone survey of some 1000 enterprises in the business services sector, which included computer, legal, accounting and employment services, Bittman, Flick and Rice (2001) found no clear pattern of negative attitudes towards employing older workers. They claimed (p. vii) that ‘despite [employers’] reputation for favouring younger, risk-taking innovators, the study revealed a preference for a diverse workforce of intelligent, reliable, team workers with industry rather than computing experience’. However, Gringart, Helmes and Speelman (2005) claim the methodology used in that study did not allow respondents to systematically stereotype workers on the basis of age. Moreover, the business service sector may well be one of those better disposed to employing and supporting older workers than many others, as its work may be more age tolerant than others. Across a range of industries, a survey of 8000 Australian employers found the most proactive recruitment for mature age workers was in the ? ance sector (47% of ? rms), compared with only 32% in information technologies and 24% in telecommunications (Deare 2006). This kind of difference indicates that employer attitudes are not uniform in their application or intensity, across industry sectors. For instance, in their 2001 study, Gringart and Helmes found that older female jobseekers were discriminated against more than males. Yet, 4 years later, the researchers (Gringart et al. 2005) found no signi? cant gender difference. They concluded rather baldly that the sample of 128 ‘hiring decision makers’ in businesses of up to 50 employees was generally unlikely to hire older workers. These studies indicate that employer attitude is central not only to recruiting and retaining older workers, but also in advancing support for maintaining their employability through opportunities to further develop and apply more widely the knowledge they have learnt. Indeed, Howell, Buttigieg and Webber (2006, p. ) concluded that senior management’s support for diversity and effective utilisation of older workers as part of the retail workforce resulted in age-positive practices by those managers who supervise older workers. Nonetheless, in its own way, this kind of endorsement indicates, ? rstly, the importance of attitudes being premised on the basis of informed accounts of performance and not age bias and, secondly, that these attitudes can change. 1252 S. Billett et al. Such change in attitudes would n eed to be broadly applied across decision-making in businesses. For instance, the BCA (2003, p. 8) claimed that voluntary retirement is often seen as a workforce management tool, but that such policies are often based on age alone, and that consideration is not given to the employees’ skill and experience pro? les. The depth and pervasiveness of the employer discrimination against older workers are illustrated further in the BCA’s (2003, p. 11) ? ndings which suggest that recruitment agencies may actually practise ‘ageism’ when shortlisting applicants for their clients, a claim denied by the agencies (Hovenden 2004). Certainly, some of these agencies promote mature age employment through their websites. One of them commissioned a report on the implications of the ageing population in the Australian workforce that described ageism as ‘a particularly insidious form of discrimination’ (Jorgensen 2004, p. 13). Recommending that employers needed to confront their own prejudices, Jorgensen also suggested (p. 13) that ‘policy approaches that deal with ageism also need to be carefully framed so as not to stigmatise older workers, isolate younger workers or impose obligations on older workers who simply do not have the health or desire to continue in full time or part time employment’. It follows from here that in the current social and ? nancial environments, speci? c and targeted policies and sustained initiatives are likely to be required to change attitudes about older workers’ occupational capacities and employability across their working lives. However, these initiatives will need to overcome a range of societal and workplace barriers for the maximum retention of and full utilisation of these workers’ capacities. Key barriers here include a societal preference of privileging youth over age across countries with advanced industrial economies. This preference manifests itself in workplace practices of not only favouring the employment of younger workers, but also directing far more resources towards their development than older workers, among other groups (Brunello 2001; Brunello and Medio 2001). These preferences seem powerful and enduring. Even evidence suggesting that older workers are as capable as other workers and have the very attributes employers claim to value, seemingly fail to change management’s views, i. e. f those who employ and make decisions about workers’ advancement and access to development opportunities. Some might argue that this preference will change as older workers become an increasingly common element of the workforce and a necessity for employers. Countering such a claim is the prospect that a scarcity of younger people may well lead to greater enterprise competition for and sponsorship of younger and well-educated workers and more intense resourcing of these workers and away from o lder workers. Moreover, despite the growing presence of older workers in the Australian workforce over the last 20 years, little appears to have changed in terms of employer preference or workplace responses to their growing participation. Salient here is the comparison of older workers with women workers. Despite their increasing participation in the workforce, women workers across a range of national workforces have struggled to secure worthwhile work conditions, despite legislative arrangements associated with equal opportunity (Cavanagh 2008). Therefore, unless signi? ant changes occur in both the attitudes towards and Australian employers’ practices, older workers may well increasingly struggle to secure worthwhile work, and opportunities for the development and advancement required to retain them in socially and economically vital work and improve their effectiveness in that work. Indeed, there are potentially strong negative consequences here. Consequences of negative employer attitu des and practices There are both personal and societal costs of employer attitudes and practices that discriminate unreasonably against older workers. These costs include the limits in range of The International Journal of Human Resource Management 1253employment options for these workers and dif? culties becoming employed. Indeed, a consequence of policies designed to promote a deregulated and ? exible labour market is the growing distinction between ‘core sector jobs’ (‘good’ jobs that require high skills, offer decent wages and provide bene? ts such as support for training and development) and ‘peripheral sector jobs’ (‘dead end’ jobs that require few skills, offer poor wages and few bene? s, as well as little in the way of job security) (Kossen and Pedersen 2008, p. 5). Given such a bifurcation, the great risk is that older workers will be seen as only being employable in the peripheral sectors. This may well be particularly true for the range of options that are available for many older workers. Challenging the notion of meritocracy in the labour market, Kossen and Pedersen ( 2008, p. 6) cite research indicating that older workers who have been excluded from employment ‘experience far greater dif? culty in rejoining the core orkforce’. The point here is that older workers may have greater dif? culty securing worthwhile work when they re-enter the workforce. Indeed, the negative attitudes that older workers experience may well contribute to the widespread ‘culture’ of early retirement in Australia (Encel 2003) in which workforce participation by those over 55 is considerably lower than in many other OECD countries (ABS 2007) as these workers fail to ? nd meaningful employment, and withdraw from the labour market. A recruiting agency (Adage, n. d. 1) concluded that mature age workers are more likely to ‘experience the compounding effect of being out of the workforce resulting in being seen as less employable’. Another agency reported that nearly three-quarters of 2000 baby boomers surveyed believed that it is nearly i mpossible to get a job after age 45 (Brinsden 2007). The studies cited above, along with a range of other research ? ndings (see OECD 2006a, 2006b; Syed 2006; Kossen and Pedersen 2008) con? rm that age prejudice is alive and well in Australian workplaces, and likely play out most heavily on those who are currently out of employment. Consequently, a priority for policy is to ? nd ways of supporting unemployed older workers’ re-employment, and in worthwhile work, and ? nding ways of praising their worth that can transform the attitudes of their employers. Yet, others suggest that factors other than age alone play key roles in decision-making, particularly that such decisions are based on a business case, not on ageism. In an Equal Opportunity Commission seminar, Ranzijn (2005, p. 1) argued that ‘in general, age discrimination is not a function of a negative attitude towards older workers, but based on an implicit cost/bene? analysis’. The OECD (2006a, 2006b, p. 10) also noted that a dif? culty for employers with older workers is ‘wages and non-wage labour costs that rise more steeply with age than productivity’ and also that there are ‘shorter expected pay-back periods on investments in the training of older workers as well as their lower average educational attainmentâ€℠¢. Perhaps, because of such imperatives, Encel (2003, p. 4) warned that age discrimination is ‘commonly covert and evasive and easily masked’. Similarly, Bittman et al. (2001, p. 6) reported to an Australian House of Representatives inquiry into older workers’ unemployment that the latter were consistently advised that they were ‘over quali? ed for lower positions and under quali? ed for higher positions’. Whatever the reasons advanced by employers for not retaining or employing mature age workers, Ranzijn (2005, p. 8) pointed out that the changing demographics of the workforce will inevitably mean that employers will have to resort to older workers in order to maintain productivity, a point also made by the OECD (2006b) based on a multi-nation survey. However, such a pragmatic and expedient premise may not be the best one to proceed with. Despite becoming increasingly essential for the production of goods and services, older workers will continue to be seen as ‘last resort workers’: at the bottom of employers’ preferred kind of workers (Quintrell 2000). Employees categorised in this way will often be a low priority for employer-sponsored development opportunities and support in the 1254 S. Billett et al. workplace (Billett and Smith 2003) of the kinds required to retain them and further develop their capacities. Hence, even if the government supports the re-employment of older workers, it is likely that within the workplaces the opportunities are still likely to be shaped by a cultural preference where youth is championed and privileged, and where age is seen as a natural decline (Giddens 1997). Therefore, older workers cannot be con? dent of being afforded the kinds of employer support required to maintain their workplace competence and successfully negotiate work transitions. Moreover, given the privileging of youth, it is unlikely that older workers will make demands for employer-funded training, lest they reinforce the sentiment of being a liability. Analogously, Church (2004) refers to disabled workers who have particular needs for support, yet are strategic and cautious in their demands for workplace support, including that from their co-workers, lest they be seen as liabilities in cost-conscious work environments. Nevertheless, the widely held view among employers that older workers are less able and in? xible, and offer limited return on developmental opportunities is questioned by data arising from informants with direct experience of these workers. McIntosh (2001), for instance, notes that enterprises actually employing older workers value their contributions in quite distinct ways: survey responses of nearly 400 American employers and human resource development managers characterised older workers as: (a) being ? exible and open to change, (b) ha ving up-to-date skills, (c) interested in learning new tasks and (d) willing to take on challenging tasks. Furthermore, 68% of the respondents concluded that training older workers costs less or the same as training their younger counterparts; 57% reported that age does not affect the amount of time required to train an employee (14% disagreed) and 49% believed that older workers grasp new concepts as well as younger workers (18% disagreed). In all, this survey portrays older workers as ideal employees, which confounds the sentiment behind practices that distribute employer-funded support away from these workers. The exercise of this sentiment may also re? ect the contradictory and confusing discourse that many older workers experience and try to understand in the workplace: they are essential to maintain the production of goods and services, yet discriminated against in terms of the opportunities afforded them. Despite the suggestion in the survey reported by McIntosh (2001), few studies effectively describe the reaction and role of older workers to the changing nature of work processes. Indeed, McNair, Flynn, Owen, Humphreys and Wood? ld (2004) claim their surveys indicate that most workers reported not being given assistance to negotiate new work roles and new work as their work life transforms. Hence, this reinforces not only the lack of support, but also the need for and apparent success of these workers being able to independently develop their capacities. Consequently, policies and practices by government, industry bodies and industry sector interests may have to interweave both suppor t for older workers’ re-employment or continuing employment, with processes that also attempt to transform the views and perspectives of employers. Yet, sitting in here also is the need to develop and support these workers’ capacities to be agentic learners, i. e. in line with their own interests and intentions (Billett and vanWoerkom 2006). Direct subsidies may well indeed reinforce the perspective that positions older workers as being de? cient and worthy of societally incurred subsidies, and places employers as being only able to employ and promote the interests of these workers when such subsidies are available. It would then seem that policies and practices are needed to both engage employers with older workers and promote their worth to employers in a way which incrementally in? ences their decision-making. It is these kinds of engagement and development that will be required to both overcome and transform well-entrenched preferences. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 1255All of the above points to the importance of identifying what has to be done to effectively retain older workers and develop their employability. Added here is the prospect that the fewer available younger workers will be in high demand and, as such, are unlikely to select low-status occupations such as aged care. Hence, and as noted, a key consideration for approaches to improving policy and practice for older workers is shifting employer attitudes towards a more positive accounting of the capabilities and potentialities of these workers. Policy reform is needed to respond to engage and inform to secure such a shift. Therefore, it is helpful to identify what has been done to bring about such changes, policy wise. References Adage (n. d), ‘Why Adage Targets Mature Professionals,’ www. adage. com. au Ainsworth, S. (2001), ‘The Discursive Construction of the Older Worker Identity: A Re? ction on Process and Methods,’ Tamara: The Journal of Critical Postmodern Science, 1, 4, 29–46. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2004), ‘Paid Work: Mature Age Workers,’ Australian Social Trends, series, catalogue no. 4102. 0, June 15, Canberra, ABS. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2007), ‘Skilling Mature Age Australians for Work,’ Year Book Australia, ca talogue no. 1301. 0, February 7, Canberra, ABS. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2008), ‘Population Projections – a Tool for Examining Population Ageing,’ Australian Social Trends series, catalogue no. 4102. 0, June 15, Canberra, ABS. Australian National Training Authority (2004), Increasing the Vocational Education and Training Participation and Achievement of Older Workers: Ideas for Action, Brisbane: ANTA. Billett, S. (2010), Promoting and Supporting Lifelong Employability for Singapore’s Workers Aged 45 and Over, Singapore: Institute for Adult Learning. Billett, S. , and Smith, A. (2003), ‘Compliance, Engagement and Commitment: Increasing Employer Expenditure in Training,’ Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 53, 3, 251–269. Billett, S. , and vanWoerkom, M. (2006), ‘Older Workers and Learning Through Work: The Need for Agency and Critical Re? ction,’ in Promoting Lifelong Learning for Older Workers – an International Overview, eds. T. Tikkanen and B. Nyhan, Cedefop Reference Series 65. Luxembourg: EUR-OP, pp. 177–189. Bishop, J. H. (1997), ‘What We know About Employer Provided Training: A Review of the Literature,’ Research in Labour E conomics, 16, 19–87. Bittman, M. , Flick, M. , and Rice, J. (2001), ‘The Recruitment of Older Australian Workers: A Survey of Employers in a High Growth Industry,’ UNSW, Report for Department of Family and Community Services, Social Policy Research Centre, Sydney. Brinsden, C. 2007), ‘Mature-age Workers Pessimistic Over Future,’ The Australian, 9 July, online. Brunello, G. (2001), ‘On the Complementarity Between Education and Training in Europe,’ IZA discussion paper 309, Forschungsinstituit zur Zukunft der Arbeit- IZA, Institute for the Study of Labour, Zurich. Brunello, G. , and Medio, A. (2001), ‘An Explanation of International Differences in Education and Workplace Training,’ European Economic Review, 45, 2, 307–322. Business Council of Australia (2003), Age Can Work: A Business Guide for Supporting Older Workers, Melbourne: BCA. Cavanagh, J. (2008), ‘Women Auxiliary Workers’ Learning and Discovering â€Å"Self† Through Work,’ in Emerging Perspectives of Learning Through Work, eds. S. Billett, C. Harties and A. Etela? pelto, Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishing, BV, pp. 67–82. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 1259Church, K. (2004), ‘Dancing Lessons: A Choreography of Disability in Corporate Culture,’ Paper presented at the WALL Annual Meeting, Toronto. Colebatch, T. (2009), ‘Retirement by 70 a Fading Hope for Many,’ The Age, 25 February, online. Deare, S. (2006), ‘IT and Telecomms Inactive on Mature Workers,’ ZDNet Australia. www. zdnet. com. au/news/business/soa/IT-and-telecomms-inactive-on-mature-workers/0,139023166, 139251015,00. htm Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (2008), ‘Outcome 8: Workforce Participation,’ DEEWR Budget Statements – Outcomes and Performance. www. deewr. gov. au/ deewr/Publications/Budget Department of Employment and Workplace Relations (2005), Workforce Tomorrow, Canberra: DEWR. Dymock, D. , Billett, S. , Martin, G. , and Johnson, G. 2009), ‘Retaining and Sustaining the Competence of Older Workers: An Australian Perspective,’ Paper presented at the conference, Lifelong learning revisited: What next? June 24–26, Stirling University, Scotland. Encel, S. (2003), ‘Age Can Work: The Case for Older Australians Staying in the Workforce,’ A report to the Australian Council of Trade Unions and the Business Council of A ustralia, Sydney. Giddens, A. (1997), Sociology (3rd ed. ), Cambridge: Polity Press. Giraud, O. (2002), â€Å"Firms† Further Training Practices and Social Exclusion: Can Industrial Relations Systems Provide Greater Equality? Theoretical and Empirical Evidence from Germany and France,’ in Education, Training and Employment Dynamics: Transitional Labour Markets in the European Union, eds. K. Schoman and P. J. Connell, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 300–303. Gringart, E. , Helmes, E. , and Speelman, C. (2005), ‘Exploring Attitudes Toward Older Workers Among Australian Employers: An Empirical Study,’ Journal of Aging and Social Policy, 17, 3, 85–103. Hovenden, D. (2004), ‘Fishy Memories on Ageing Workforce Crisis,’ Human Resources Magazine. www. humanresourcesmagazine. com. au/articles/15/0c019a15. asp Howell, S. Buttigieg, D. , and Webber, W. (2006), ‘Management Attitudes to Older Workers in the Retail Sector,’ Monash Business Review, 2, 3, 1–10. Jorgensen, B. (2004), The Ageing Population: Implications for the Australian Workforce, Sydney: Hudson Global Resources and Human Capital Solutions. Kossen, C. , and Pedersen, C. (2008), ‘Older Workers in Australia: The Myths, the Realities and the Battle over Workforce â€Å"Flexibility†,’ Journal of Management and Organization, 14, 1, 73–84. McIntosh, B. (2001),An Employer’s Guide to Older Workers: How to Win Them Back and Convince Them to Stay. ww. doleta. gov/Seniors/other_docs/EmplGuide. pdf McNair, S. , Flynn, M. , Owen, L. , Humphreys, C. , and Wood? eld, S. (2004),Changing Work in Later Life: A Study of Job Transitions, London: University of Surrey, Centre for Research into the Older Workforce. Naegele, G. , and Walker, A. (2006), A Guide to Good Practice in Age Management, Dublin: European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. Naughtin, G. (2008), ‘Social Inclusion and Older People,’ in Social Inclusion Down Under: Symposium Proceedings, Brotherhood of St. Laurence. www. sl. org. au/naughtin_symposium_ paper_26Jun08. pdf Neville, I. (2008), ‘The Australian Labour Market: Challenges and Resp onses,’ Seminar presentation, Canberra, Labour Supply and Skills Branch, Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. www. gemspl. com. au/bipartite2008/Proceedings/ Ivan%20Neville%20Presp. pdf NSW Labor (2008), ‘Supporting Older Workers,’ 9 July, NSW Labor. www. nswalp. com/blog/358/ supporting-older-workers Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2006a), ‘Live Longer, Work Longer: A Synthesis Report,’ Summary. Paris: OECD. www. oecd. org/els/employment/olderworkers. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2006b), Live Longer, Work Longer: A Synthesis Report, Paris: OECD. Price, R. , and Colley, L. (2007), ‘Assessing HR Strategies for Retaining an Aging Workforce,’ in 15th International Employment Relations Association Conference: Working Lives, Working Choices, July, 9–13, Canterbury, England. Queensland Government (2008), Experience Pays Pack, Brisbane: Department of Employment and Industrial Relations. 260 S. Billett et al. Quintrell, M. (2000), ‘Older and Wiser; or Just at the End of the Line? ’ Westminster Studies in Education, 23, 19–31. Ranzijn, R. (2005), ‘Discrimination Against the Older Worker: Psychology and Economics,’ Paper presented at seminar, ‘Of Working Age,’ May, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sydney. Rolland, L. (2007), ‘Ageing and Work in 2030: In or Out of Our Hands? ’ Paper prepared for forum, ‘Ageing 2030 – Creating the future,’ Sydney, NSW Government. Rosen, B. , and Jerdee, T. H. 1988), ‘Managing Older Workers’ Careers,’Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 6, 37–74. Smith, A. , and Billett, S. (2003), Enhancing Employers’ Expenditure on Training, Adelaide: National Centre for Vocational Education Research. Steinberg, M. , Donald, K. , Najman, J. , and Skerman, H. (1996), ‘Attitudes of Employees and Employers Towards Older Workers in a Climate of Anti-Discrimination,’Australian Journal on Ageing, 15, 4, 154–158. Syed, J. (2006), ‘Older Workers in Australia: A Policy Perspective,’ Journal of Economic and Social Policy, 1, 11, 21–43. Taylor, P. , and Walker, A. (1998), ‘Employers and Older Workers: Attitudes and Employment Practices,’ Ageing and society, 18, 641–658. The Treasury (2010), ‘Australia to 2050: Future Challenges,’ (Intergenerational Report), Canberra, Australian Government. Tikkanen, T. (1997, May), ‘Consequences of Unemployment on Professional Competency,’ Paper presented at the Nordic Conference on Adult Education, Trondheim, Norway. Tikkanen, T. , Lahn, L. , Ward, P. , and Lyng, K. (2002), Working Life Changes and Training of Older Workers, Trondheim: Vox. an Dijk, T. A. (2008), Discourse and Power, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Victorian Government (2005), ‘The Ageing Workforce,’ The State of Working Victoria Project, Information Paper No. 4, Melbourne. Weller, S. (2007), ‘Discrimination, Labour Markets and the Labour Market Prospects of Older Workers: What Can a Legal Case Teach Us? ’ Work, Employment and Society, 21, 417â⠂¬â€œ437. Wooden, M. , VandenHeuvel, A. , and Cully, M. (2001), Barriers to Training for Older Workers and Possible Policy Solutions, Adelaide: DETYA/NILS, Flinders University The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 22, No. 6, March 2011, 1248–1261 Employees. Theyre the one thing that businesses everywhere have a need for. And not just employees, but employees who are honest, responsible, dependable, loyal, focused, organized and mature. Is this too much to ask? U. S. employers spends millions of man hours each year placing ads, prescreening and interviewing candidates, and hiring and training workers, only to find that many of the employees they hire work for them for just a ew months only to decide they dont want to just be a clerk anymore or feel something betters come along as they work their way up the corporate ladder. So where can businesses find a dependable, steady workforce that has no plans to move up and out? A workforce dedicated to the job at hand and that takes pride in its work? Who will cost them less to hire, train and maintain? The answer? Older workers. Below are twelve reasons why hiring older workers can he lp you maintain a reliable, dedicated workforce and provide a significant cost savings for both the short and long term. . Dedicated  workers produce higher quality work, which can result in a significant cost savings for you. Stories abound of highly committed older workers finding others potentially costly mistakes regarding everything from misspelling of client names to pricing errors and accounting mistakes. 2. Punctuality  seems to be a given for older workers. Most of them look forward to going to work each day, so theyre likely to arrive on time and be ready to work. 3. Honesty  is common among older workers, whose values as a group include personal integrity and a devotion to the truth. 4. Detail-oriented, focused and attentive  workers add an intangible value that rubs off on all employees and can save your business thousands of dollars. One business owner I know once told me that one of his older workers saved his company more than $50,000 on one large mailing job. The 75-year-old clerical worker recognized that all the ZIP codes were off by one digit. Neither the owners mailing house nor his degreed and highly paid marketing manager had noticed it. 5. Good listeners  make great employees because theyre easier to trainolder employees only have to be told once what to do. 6. Pride in a job well done  has become an increasingly rare commodity among younger employees. Younger workers want to put in their time at work and leave, while older employees are more willingly to stay later to get a job done because of their sense of pride in the final product. 7. Organizational skills  among older workers mean employers who hire them are less likely to be a part of this startling statistic: More than a million man hours are lost each year simply due to workplace disorganization. 8. Efficiency and the confidence  to share their recommendations and ideas make older workers ideal employees. Their years of experience in the workplace give them a superior understanding of how jobs can be done more efficiently, which saves companies money. Their confidence, built up through the years, means they wont hesitate to share their ideas with management. 9. Maturity  comes from years of life and work experience and makes for workers who get less rattled when problems occur. 10. Setting an example  for other employees is an intangible value many business owners appreciate. Older workers make excellent mentors and role models, which makes training other employees less difficult. 11. Communication skillsknowing when and how to communicateevolve through years of experience. Older workers understand workplace politics and know how to diplomatically convey their ideas to the boss. 12. Reduced labor costs  are a huge benefit when hiring older workers. Most already have insurance plans from prior employers or have an additional source of income and are willing to take a little less to get the job they want. They understand that working for a company can be about much more than just collecting a paycheck. Any business owner whos hesitant to hire an older worker should consider these twelve benefits. Older workers unique skills and valuesand the potential savings to your company in time and moneymake hiring them a simple matter of rethinking the costs of high turnover in a more youthful workforce vs. the benefits of experience and mature standards older workers bring to the mix. You simply do not have the time or resources to deal with high employee turnover. The next time you need to make a hiring decision, you should seriously consider older workers: Their contribution to your company could positively impact your bottom line for years to come. Stephen Bastien isa business consultant and an expert on leadership and managing employees. Hes the author of  Yes, One Person Can Make a Difference  and  Born to Be. Having started several successful businesses, his current venture, Bastien Financial Publications, provides businesses with the latest developments on fast-growing and distressed companies nationwide through his daily newsletters. Visit his site  for more information on his financial publications, books or consulting services. Read more:  http://www. entrepreneur. com/article/167500#ixzz2QXXcMEQO

The Meaning of Life through Subjectivity

The Meaning of Life through Subjectivity Humans are subjective because despite trying to stop affecting world that they are a part of, they are changing it. This relationship, which causes a change in the world through action, changes any objective view into a subjective one because they are influencing what a pure observer cannot. By trying to simply stop doing and merely observe, people attempt to reach a state of pure objectivity. This, however, becomes an impossible task once one considers that their mere existence is an act in and of itself. Meaning that the only way to become truly objective is to temporarily stop existing, observe purely in that non-existent state, and then resume existing within the world as a human being. To be able to even consider performing these impossible tasks is akin to being God. In total, it is impossible for a human being to achieve a state of non existence simply because the mere act of living causes one to become subjective due to the fact they have an influence on the world around them . While they are young, humans eventually reach a point when they become aware that their existences are enveloped in exclusivity. They see that their lives are filled with choices, forks in the road which make it apparent that whenever one chooses something, something else must be excluded. These choices can bring the pain of having to weigh between the options and the respective consequences, as well as coming to terms with the idea that one cannot have everything. Considering the human limitation of having to exclude one thing in order to gain another, people will always reach for a level of objectivity in their choices; they want to remove some of the pain and difficulty that they feel from having to make those choices by detaching themselves emotionally from the choices they have to make. Despite the truth of existence lying in subjectivity, there is a paradox shown here; that humans are almost preset to reach for objectivity despite the answer existing in the other direction: bey ond subjectivity. To reach the answer of life, one must first come to terms with the truth of existence. Kierkegaards existential truth is subjectivity; for a human to understand that subjectivity is the core of existence then enables them to pursue and eventually understand the answer to life. Subjectivity in itself is important to grasp as a human, and as a result, it also serves as a differentiation between the simple man and the wise man. If the wise man is being subjective, he knows that there is a difference between subjectivity and objectivity. However, the only indication that he is being completely subjective at a given point is that he objectively knows the difference between objectivity and subjectivity. This understanding allows him to grasp the concept of the answer to life while at the same time brings up the paradox of only being subjective when being objective. In contrast, if the simple man is being subjective, he is simply being subjective by point of impulse and would not be aware o f it. Thus the simple man cannot be considered to have reached the same existential truth as the wise man. To be wise is a curse as well as a blessing, for the paradox teaches him the importance of the existential truth, while at the same time, prevents him from reaching it. Given Kierkegaards belief that the existential truth is subjectivity, that all humans eventually become at least slightly objective and that people need to be slightly objective in order to be subjective, then a paradox presents itself. If a human cannot be subjective without being objective then this begs the question about whether or not a human reach a state of pure subjectivity. Within the World-Historical view, there is but a single objective truth to any individual event throughout history, but subjectivity shows a different, individual truth for every person viewing it. Seeing that people cannot objectively observe and think over the past (without first accomplishing the impossible task of becoming God-like), people are left to view the events themselves from the present, filling in the gaps between objective facts with subjective interpretations. These all compile to subjective truths; each being the truth, yet none being any more or less valid than the last. By being human, one is restricted by the world they have subjectively constructed; a world made with the subjective truths influenced by their own thoughts, feelings and experiences. However, as partially subjective existences in what can only be perceived as a purely subjective world, one must ask if human beings can really exist in the same world as anyone else and if the answer to that query chan ges the answer to life itself. This presents us with the final paradox; that in order to obtain the answer one must be an objective and static entity, but humans as a whole are subjective simply through existence. Were one to find the so-called answer to life, ones life would fundamentally change. However, as a direct result of finding that answer, this newly changed life is basically a new life in and of itself. This new life is at least slightly different from the old life and, as a result, has a new subjective truth to it. This effectively renders the previous answer worthless, perhaps having never existed to begin with. This in itself proves that the answer cannot be found in the constantly active life, but only in the static death where the constant, static world is unaffected by a person. Despite this, the answer holds no meaning after death and cannot be communicated to the living resulting in the same lack of truth. As a result, Ive found that Im unable to submit my answer to this lifelong assignment, and that to do so I would have to no longer be considered alive. I apologize and would like to request an extension; preferably to sometime in the late 2070s.

Unferth in Beowulf and Odysseus in Homer’s Odyssey :: comparison compare contrast essays

Unferth in Beowulf and Odysseus in the Odyssey   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Kemp Malone in   his essay â€Å"Beowulf† comments that the hero’s swimming match with Breca, an episode of more than 100 lines, is â€Å"not told as such,† but set in a frame: â€Å"the flitting between Unferth and Beowulf† (Malone 144). This contention or challenge between the hero and a rude challenger appears not only in Beowulf but in other heroic poetry like the Odyssey.    When Beowulf and his crew of brave Geat warriors arrive to the court of King Hrothgar of Denmark, one of the king’s retainers, Unferth by name, has been drinking too heavily of the mead. This puts him into a drunken state of mind wherein he unwisely and rudely challenges the hero regarding a swimming contest sometime earlier:    Unferth, Ecglaf’s son,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   rose to speak, who sat at the fee  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   of the lord of the Scyldings; he unbound a battle-rune -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   the journey of Beowulf, the brave seafarer,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   caused him chagrin, for he would not grant    that any other man under the heavens  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   might ever care more for famous deeds  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   than he himself: â€Å"Are you the same Beowulf  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   who challenged Breca to a swimming match  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   on the open sea? There out of pride  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   you both tested sea-ways, through foolish boasting risked lives on the deep. None could dissuade you,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   friend or foe, keep either of you  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   from that hapless trip, when you went swimming  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   out of the bay, your arms embracing  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   the crests, sea-currents, flung out your hands  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   to measure the sea-roads, the ocean of wind.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The steep seas boiled in winter’s pourings.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   You both toiled seven nights driven by the waves,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   and in that swimming he overcame you,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   had greater strength.(499ff.)    So far Unferth, a proud warrior himself, tells Beowulf that the hero is foolish and that he has been bested in this sea-competition by his opponent – both of which are big, embarrassing putdowns. Unferth continues to rub it in:    The sea cast him up   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   on the Heatho-Raems’ shore; from there at daybreak   he sought his homeland, beloved by his people,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   came back to the Brondings, fair peace-fort  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   where he had subjects, stronghold, and treasures.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The good son of Beanstan had truly fulfilled  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   his whole boast against you(519ff.)    Nothing like siding 100% with the foe! Before even hearing both sides of the story! Finally, in concluding, Unferth states his minimal expectations of Beowulf considering the latter’s utter failure against Breca:

Comparing the Role of Women in Emma and Jane Eyre Essay -- comparison

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Throughout history women have played important roles in society. Women have gone through much adversity to get where they are today.   Jane Austen and Charlotte Brontà « are some the pioneers of women's literature. Each shows their different aspects of a women's role in society in their books Emma by Austen and Jane Eyre by Brontà «.   In both of these books the author shows how a woman deals with societies' norms, values, and manners.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jane Eyre is an orphaned daughter of a poor family.   She is brought up by her aunt Sarah Reed.   Where she is teased and tortured by the aunt and the family.   She is not very pretty and is barely on the social structure. On the other hand Emma Woodhouse is a beautiful girl and is financially sound.   She is raised by her maternal father.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Emma, Emma Woodhouse is in search of finding the appropriate man for herself is the main theme.   As the reader goes deeper into the text Emma slowly progresses into a self-deception.   Having since childhood been obliged to manage her father, she still likes to manage things,   and particularly people.   She manages to manipulate everyone except Mr. George Knightley.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Jane Eyre, Jane demonstrates a strong need to be herself, to take responsibility for her action.   She is put to the test by her daily teasing and abuse from her cousins. When she is brought to a boarding school she soon distinguishes herself through her classes.   Eventually ends up in Thorn... ... finds out the Bertha Mason Rochester set it on fire and jumped off the roof.   Austen in a way showed this as a rebirth for Rochester and Jane Eyre.   Jane returns to Rochester even though he suffered an amputated hand and is blinded by the fire.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Eventually they marry and Rochester regains his sight in one eye and produces a son.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In both of these books the author shows how a woman deals with societies' norms, values, and manners.   Jane and Emma endure harsh realities in life.   Jane had to be a strong character to go through what she did.   Emma not as strong but the determination in find a spouse.   Even though Jane and Emma had different hardships the had similar characteristics.   They both had wisdom, imagination, and character.

Comparison of British Parliamentary Democracy and American Presidential

Comparison of British Parliamentary Democracy and American Presidential Democracy In declaring independence from Britain, the American Colonies sought to create a democracy that found its roots in Ancient Greece and Great Britain while improving on the flaws of each. The result was a presidential democracy that stood in contrast to the parliamentary democracy of Great Britain. Thus these, the two oldest, continuous democracies in existence present an interesting comparison. At the heart of any government is the constitution, and here we discover the first major difference between the American and British democratic systems. The Constitution has never been written in one conclusive and final document, but depends largely on practices accumulated over the years. â€Å"Its most important features are no part of its formal and legal structure and have little other sanction beyond use and precedent.† (Amery 1) This easily adaptable format differs sharply from the American Constitution, a formal organization written at the start of the Union and which created formal means by which the Constitution could be changed. Because the British Constitution is reliant upon tradition, the means whereby power is distributed has changed significantly since the first democratic customs. Initially power was vested in the monarchy, which relied upon input from the House of Lords to run the nation. As time progressed the power came to fall under the command of the House of Commons, and with no system of check and balances it came to reside in the ruling party. This system is â€Å"the modern embodiment of a fusion of governmental powers which has generally characterized British government.† (Moodie 15) In c... ...cmillan Press. 1993. 92-122 Denham, Andre and Mark Garnett. British think-tanks and the climate of opinion. London: UCL Press. 1998 Holliday, Ian. â€Å"Organised Interests After Thatcher†. Developments in British Politics. Ed. by Patrick Dunleavy, Andrew Gamble, Ian Holliday, and Gillian Peele. Houndmills: The Macmillan Press. 1993. 307-320 . Krieger, Joel. British Politics in the Global Age: Can Social Democracy Survive?. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1999. Marsh, David. â€Å"The Media and Politics†. Developments in British Politics. Ed. by Patrick Dunleavy, Andrew Gamble, Ian Holliday, and Gillian Peele. Houndmills: The Macmillan Press. 1993. 332-349 Moodie, Graeme C. The Government of Great Britain. New York: Thomas U. Crowell Company. 1964. Pilkington, Colin. Issues in British Politics. New York: St. Martin’s Press. 1998

Sigmund Freud Essay

Sigmund Freud has investigated the Psychoanalytic Theory (1856-1939). This theory caused great inconvenience when delivered and accepted a systematic war because Freud revealed the importance and impact of human sexual impulses stressing that culture is built over their oppression. The Psychology of Conflict is one of the basic principles in the Psychoanalytic theory which sees the function of the mind as the expression of conflicting powers. Some of these forces are conscious but the key is unconscious. This conflict reflects a contradiction in dual nature of someone as a biological and social creature. During the development and socialisation of the individual it is inevitable to experience frustration anger, frustration and conflict / inconsistency (conflict). The Pleasure principle is another basic principle of psychoanalytic theory is that human psychology governed by the tendency of man craves pleasure and avoids the pain. The primary experience pleasure and pain play an import ant role in structuring of human personality. The Freud was first modern psychologist who gave importance to childhood. The sources of the ribs are always beyond the region of the conscious. They repulsed outside the conscious because they have painful character. Another basic principle of the psychoanalytic theory of personality is precisely this topographical perspective. Namely that every mental element judged on how accessible is the conscious. The conscious is only a small piece of psychic resources we have. Another basic principle is determinism. The events that occur in the human mind are not accidental, occasional or disconnected. The thoughts, feelings, impulses coming into consciousness are a chain of causally connected events, associated with some previous experience in life. Several of the links are unconscious. Another key element that sees the psychoanalytic theory. Personality is the dynamic view that that there are sexual sprints instinct of life (life oriented libidinal impulses – EROS) and aggressive momenta death instinct (destructive, death, aggressive impulses – THANATOS) that irritate and cause the mind to work with, act, to change. Because of their biological base these forces have called instincts or impulses (drives). Finally, another principle of psychoanalytic theory of personality is genetic point of view, namely that the birth of contrasts / conflicts, personality traits of neurotic symptoms and general psychological structure of man can be found at major events of childhood that created desires and imaginations. The roots  of psychological structures are born in fantasies and desires of childhood. The human soul consists of three concepts: the ego is the reservoir of mental energy – we are born with it which includes all biological instincts of hunger , thirst, sexual satisfaction, which give strength and direction to human behaviour. The ego begins to evolve after birth and occurs around the 6th month. The role of the ego is to mediate between that of reality, and the superego. That’s why we say that the ego operates on the reality principle and is conscious. The super- ego is the structure of personality that represents the moral principles of society as conveyed in person from their parents – is what we call conscience- and the source of obligations. Apart from the super – conscious ego has another piece of the ego-ideal. The Id and the super- ego are constantly in a fight. When ego cannot find a solution to reconcile the desires of the Id and the super-ego, anxiety is created. Stress is a warning message that ego does not succeed in his role. A group of neo- Freudian psychoanalysts were called ‘analysts of the Ego’ (Karen Horney, Anna Freud, Erik Erikson, etc. ) who gave greater importance to me and less to that . As it’s known, Freud argued that the ego is a mere intermediary that seeks to satisfy the needs and impulses of that without disrupting or to conflict with the superego. But according to analysts of the Ego , the one no longer seen as the superpower of mental structure and I treated like a force that has the ability to control the environment and to choose the time and manner in which satisfy the impulses of the id. The ego is considered capable to create and achieve satisfactory targets chos en by the individual. So between the instinctual drives, external conditions and Act inserted the thought that controls both the internal energy as and reactions of the individual to the external environment. A second new direction influenced psychoanalytic thinking emphasizes the importance of social relationships to explain the formation of personality. So instead of seeing human nature as the result of conflicts around the momenta of him, seeing it more as the result of the child’s relationship with other important people in his life . This direction is reflected in the modern psychoanalytic method called Theory of the relationship with the object or object relations (Object Relations Theory – Melanie Klein, Heinz Kohut). This theory emphasizes the relative adhesion (attachment) of the baby, especially the mother, and the importance of the quality of these early  attachments for the development of the ego of the child, feelings about oneself and developing interpersonal relationships in later life. So theorists of the relationship with the object they see the relationship with parents as an important determinant of the direction taken by the personality of the individual. Apart from these two directions of psychoanalytic thought seeing two of their colleagues nearby Freud, who came into conflict with him, to create their own schools. Jung disagreed with Freud about the nature of the subconscious. Jung believed that the unconscious is not just a reservoir of forbidden impulses and repressed memories, but also the source of our drive for pleasure and creativity. Jung also believed that within us there is a struggle of opposing forces. Every man has a passive – a feminine nature and dynamics â⠂¬â€œ masculine nature. Each one of us also has elements of introversion and extroversion. Also, there is a struggle between the face we present to others (persona) and private self-image (anima / animus). According to Jung, the work of every man is to be able to unite these opposing forces. The Adler disagreed with Freud because he believed that the main force mobilization in human life is not the satisfaction of sexual momenta, but the effort for supremacy. By this meant the interior searching for perfection. Adler said that all children are born with a deep sense of inferiority because of their small size, natural weaknesses and lack of knowledge and power in the world of adults. First used the term inferiority complex. Adler believed that the way parents relate to their children has a significant effect on the child’s ability to overcome these feelings of inferiority and succeed in later life. So Adler saw personality as deeply influenced by the quality of raw social relations. Also important psychoanalytic thought is that Karen Horney saw this adult personality as shaped by childhood experiences, but, unlike Freud, she gave this emphasis on social relationships – especially with parents – instead of solving contradictions of Him . The Horney tal ked about feelings † basic anxiety  » (basic anxiety) and  «basic hostility  » (basic hostility). When parents behave indifferently, derogatory and instability, the child feels insecure and helpless experiencing basic anxiety. These feelings, according to Horney are accompanied by a deeper feeling of resentment towards parents- basic hostility. Because this hostility cannot be expressed directly, because the child needs and fears his parents, repelled and leads to  feelings of worthlessness and anxiety. This tension between basic hostility and basic anxiety leads the child, and later neurotic adult, adopt one of the following 3 stops social interactions; An action towards other, an action against others and an action away from others. When moving towards the other, the person succumbs to others and is always anxious to please them in order to gain approval and love. The person moving against the other is trying to find confidence through domination. The goal of the person who moves away from others is to protect himself, to find safety in the distance, the removal. So he never wants to create close relationships. All these protective mechanisms create many interpersonal problems.

Toni Morrison’s Beloved

Through protrude Toni Morrisons allegory heartfelt, there are many another(prenominal) obvious themes and symbols. The narrative deals with slavery and the effects that the horrifying treatment of the slaves has on a community. Another major theme, discernible passim the story, is the eldritch. The notion of haunting is very observ adapted since the characters are not precisely follow by love life at 124, however are too haunted by their noncurrent. The story of passion is not only ab surface freeing unrivalledself of a ghost, besides also around releasing ones hold on what happened in the past.Sethe is the most severely haunted finished and through out(a) the book, both by her past and by Beloved. Her past haunts her with what happened to her and what she did. She was beaten so bad that her backrest has a permanent flush scar, one that she calls A chokecherry tree. Trunk, branches, and steady leaves. Tiny shrimpy chokecherry leaves. scarce that was eighteen years ago. Could have cherries excessively promptly for all I get (pg 16). The abundant signifi thunder mugce of the scar on her back is that it is beneficial one oftentimes thing she cannot see, only when knows it is al ports there, standardized to her past.Also, the line Could have cherries too now for all I know shows that she understands how she is not only stuck with her past, but that it is growing and affecting her in many different shipway. The story revolves around the haunting of 124. Beloveds presence is apparent to Sethe, Baby Suggs and capital of Colorado, and they live with it for some cartridge clip. It is not until the day that Paul D step into the house that things change. He wastes little time in antagonizing the spirit to leave. God cursed it Hush up Leave the transmit alone Get the Hell out (18). The spirit leaves, much to Paul Ds delight. This whitethorn have occurred because Paul D is not only a figure from Sethes past, but is also the first ma n to autograph 124. Beloved is able to play mutilate of Sethes own haunting, that of her past, to get what she wants. Sethes judgment was fogged as she focused primarily on the daughter she had murdered years ago. Beloved made ridiculous demands. Anything she wanted she got, and when Sethe ran out of things to give her, Beloved invented desire (pg 240). Sethe ache up quitting her job, completely neglecting capital of Colorado, and completely neglecting herself as she dwindled away. Beloved, and her past, drained Sethe with their constant nagging. There is also significance to the word choices of the characters when talking of the past. It is lite they get out never forget their past and what had happened to them. So rather than forget, they disremember. They push it to he back of their mind where they wont think about it, but it is always there, waiting for them to rememory it. This shows how they give always be haunted by their past. Through the addition of a supernatural d imension in Beloved, Morrison pushes the limits of usual interpretation. The characters appease into believing the supernatural is normal. To them ghosts and premonitions is a way to understand the human beings around them and through this, Morrison is able to draw a relation to ones past and a troublesome ghost. ?Toni Morrisons BelovedIn Toni Morrisons Beloved, capital of Colorado is introduced to us as slimly of a simple child, unnaturally reliant on her mother and unusually girlish for a girl of eighteen years. Nevertheless, as the novel progresses, she undergoes a great measure of schooling and personal growth. However, Denvers procurement of intimacy is not attained through her experiences with clod command at bird Jones school, rather, Denver learns through lifes challenges. It is Denvers withaltual entrance into the human of knowl rim and maturity that saves Sethes life and rids 124 of Beloveds spiteful spirit.Denvers initial experiences with the received educ ation of Lady Jones school are very positive. She finds herself intrigued by learning and looks forrard to the two hours she spends every(prenominal) afternoon with Lady Jones. However, Denver extracts much from schooling than just book knowledge. She begins to ready that she can be independent from Sethe and looks forward to school because she does everything on her own and she was gay and impressd by the pleasure and surprise it created in her mother and her brothers (102).This newfound learning is something that Denver can cherish as her own, thus acting as the impulse of Denvers self-confidence. However, Denvers love for learning does not choke long. Although in the beginning, she was so happy she didnt even know she was being avoided by her classmates, (102) her remission does not last forever. Denver finds out the truth about Sethes murderous past, and, as Morrison writes, she never went back (102). Her conventional education is swiftly and effectively squelched. Inst ead of severe to overcome this severe loss in her life, Denver reacts to it by drawing back from the world around her.She is not spring up enough to face her troubles and instead she walks in a silence too unanimous for penetration (103), thus extending her loss of an education to a loss of contact with the extracurricular world. Denvers obvious failure to conquer her adversities in life show us that her conventional schooling has failed to educate her in the ways of the world. Even though it appears that Denvers education will never progress past the main(a) level she reaches in Lady Jones school, she at long last does experience a great nub of growth after the arrival of Beloved. When Beloved first enters 124, Denver is nothing curtly of obsessed with her.She craves Beloveds attention and companionship and childishly seeks out her approval. But as the novel progresses, the job she started out with, protecting Beloved from Sethe, changed to protecting her mother from Belove d (243). Denver, with the newfound responsibility of acting as the caretaker of 124 and Sethe, rises to the occasion. Denver knew it was on her. She would have to leave the step step off the edge of the world (243). Morrisons use of the phrase off the edge of the world tells us that Denvers actions are monolithic for her. She served them both.Washing, cooking, forcing, cajoling her mother to eat a little now and then, providing sweet things for Beloved as often as she could to calm her put through (250). Denvers acceptance of her responsibilities signifies an unprecedented amount of growth. She is educate through her experiences, rather than through conventional learning. It is Denvers search for her internal strength that leads to the eventual(prenominal) exorcism of Beloved and the restoration of Sethes psyche. She is able to overcome the challenges life throws her way and succeeds in saving her life as hearty as her mothers. Denvers education is unattainable from traditiona listic learning.She thrives in the face of adversity, showing us that she learns best from experience rather than study. Although it takes the actions of a malicious spirit to awaken Denver to her responsibilities in life, her pivotal growth signifies the great power in learning through experience. Denvers unconventional education proves to be much more worthy than her traditional education, in particular for the life that she must lead. The stark loss between Denvers original self and the woman she becomes as she emerges in Beloved as the savior of both Sethe and 124 shows us just how truly and deeply one can be altered by learning.